Early people calculated using a variety of methods and tools before modern arithmetic and calculators were invented. Common ways included:
- Counting with fingers, toes, or marks on the body to keep track of numbers.
- Making tally marks on bones, wood, or stones to represent quantities.
- Using counting stones or pebbles (called "calculi") to represent numbers and perform calculations by moving them between piles.
- Employing early counting boards with lines and counters placed on them to denote values.
- Using abaci, which are tools with beads sliding on rods for arithmetic operations.
- Using knotted cords known as quipu (used by the Incas) for recording numbers.
- Utilizing natural objects like shells, sticks, or bones arranged in groups to represent numbers.
These methods allowed early humans to keep track of quantities, trade, measure time, and perform basic arithmetic long before written numbers and modern tools were developed.
