India and Pakistan acquired nuclear weapons through distinct but related historical and geopolitical developments rooted in regional security concerns and technological advancements.
India’s Path to Nuclear Weapons
- India’s nuclear program began in the 1940s with a focus on peaceful nuclear research, spearheaded by Homi Jehangir Bhabha, who founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and advanced nuclear technology development
- The 1962 war with China heightened India’s security concerns, motivating the country to develop nuclear weapons as a deterrent
- India built its first research reactor in 1956 and a plutonium reprocessing plant by 1964, enabling it to produce fissile material for weapons
- In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test, "Smiling Buddha," officially described as a peaceful nuclear explosion but widely recognized as a nuclear weapons test. This test used plutonium from a Canadian-supplied reactor
- Following the test, India faced international restrictions but continued developing its nuclear arsenal and delivery systems, including ballistic missiles like the Agni and Prithvi, achieving a credible minimum deterrent by the 1990s and conducting further tests in 1998
- India has maintained a policy of "no first use" of nuclear weapons but reserves the right to respond to biological or chemical attacks with nuclear force
Pakistan’s Path to Nuclear Weapons
- Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program was initiated in 1972 by Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, motivated by India’s nuclear test in 1974 and the 1971 war that resulted in the loss of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh)
- Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, a metallurgist who had worked at a uranium enrichment facility in Europe, played a pivotal role by bringing critical uranium enrichment technology and knowledge to Pakistan, significantly advancing its nuclear program
- Pakistan established uranium enrichment facilities, notably the Kahuta plant, and developed the capability to produce weapons-grade uranium by the mid-1980s
- Pakistan is believed to have developed nuclear warheads by 1986 but did not conduct nuclear tests until 1998, shortly after India’s nuclear tests that year
- Pakistan has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and has emphasized its nuclear arsenal as a deterrent against India, especially regarding the Kashmir conflict
In summary, India’s nuclear weapons program evolved from peaceful nuclear research to weaponization driven by regional threats, culminating in a 1974 nuclear test and further development through the 1990s. Pakistan’s program was a direct response to India’s nuclear capability and regional conflicts, relying heavily on imported technology and indigenous development, achieving nuclear weapons capability by the mid-1980s and testing in 1998
. Both countries maintain nuclear arsenals as central elements of their national security strategies.
