Iran has experienced profound political, social and economic upheaval over the past 24 years. Since 2002, it has faced escalating tensions over its nuclear programme, repeated mass protests, severe international sanctions, regional conflicts, leadership changes and a deepening struggle between state control and demands for greater personal freedom.
Nuclear tensions and sanctions
In the early 2000s, Iran’s nuclear activities became a major international dispute. Western governments suspected that Iran might be developing the ability to build nuclear weapons, while Tehran insisted that its programme was intended for peaceful purposes. The dispute led to United Nations sanctions and increasingly severe restrictions imposed by the United States and its allies. Iran’s economy suffered through limits on oil exports, banking, investment and international trade. Inflation, currency depreciation and unemployment became persistent public concerns. In 2015, Iran reached the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, commonly known as the Iran nuclear deal. Iran accepted limits and inspections on its nuclear activities in return for sanctions relief. The agreement weakened in 2018 when the United States withdrew and restored sanctions. Iran subsequently exceeded several limits set by the deal, and negotiations to revive it repeatedly stalled.
Political change and protest
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad served as president from 2005 to 2013. His presidency was marked by confrontational foreign-policy rhetoric, economic disputes and the disputed 2009 election, which triggered the Green Movement protests. Security forces suppressed the demonstrations, and opposition leaders were later placed under house arrest. Hassan Rouhani, president from 2013 to 2021, campaigned on moderation and improved relations with the outside world. His government helped negotiate the nuclear agreement, but the benefits for ordinary Iranians faded after renewed US sanctions. Ebrahim Raisi became president in 2021. During his administration, the death in custody of 22-year-old Mahsa Jina Amini in September 2022 sparked the nationwide “Woman, Life, Freedom” movement. Protesters challenged compulsory veiling, political repression and the wider structure of the Islamic Republic. Authorities responded with arrests, trials and executions, while the movement continued to influence Iranian society even after street protests declined.
Regional conflicts
Iran expanded its influence across the Middle East through partnerships with groups in Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Yemen and the Palestinian territories. Its rivalry with Israel intensified, especially after the Gaza war began in 2023. Iran and Israel exchanged direct attacks in 2024, breaking with their long pattern of operating mainly through allies and covert action. The wider regional conflict placed Iran under greater military and diplomatic pressure. It also exposed limits in the country’s economy and air-defence capabilities, although the full consequences remain politically contested.
Leadership and the economy
Ayatollah Ali Khamenei remained Iran’s supreme leader throughout this period, while elected governments changed beneath him. The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps gained greater political, economic and security influence. For many Iranians, the most immediate problems have been rising prices, falling purchasing power, water shortages, power cuts and limited job opportunities. Sanctions have contributed to these difficulties, but domestic mismanagement, corruption and structural economic problems have also played important roles. By 2026, Iran remained politically authoritarian but socially restless. The central question was no longer only how Tehran would manage its nuclear dispute with foreign powers, but whether the government could maintain control while meeting growing demands for economic security, dignity and personal freedom.